Dovidio and Gaertner focuses on the bases of group-based biases and provides a thorough consideration of theory and research on stereotype change and prejudice reduction. Finally, in addition to the aforementioned chapters, Dovidio, et al. Dovidio, John F. Intergroup bias. In Handbook of social psychology. Edited by Susan T. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Focuses mainly on the psychological foundations of intergroup bias and how to resolve those biases in order to reduce prejudice. There are discussions about the categorization process, explicit versus implicit biases and what mediates and moderates those biases.
On the nature of prejudice: Fifty years after Allport. Malden, MA: Blackwell. The SAGE handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination. London: SAGE. An edited collection useful for students and researchers that covers the processes, expression, and consequences of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination, as well as ways to reduce them at individual and societal levels.
Fiske, Susan T. Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. Fiske, and Gardner Lindzey, — New York: McGraw-Hill. In this oft-cited chapter, Fiske discusses the definitions of stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination along with a brief history of their study and their cognitive and social bases and effects.
It is dense with information that is important for those researching prejudice. Nelson, Todd D. Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination. New York: Psychology Press. An accessible handbook that is useful for researchers who want to get acquainted with recent work on prejudice and stereotyping.
It covers theoretical frameworks for the causes of prejudice and stereotyping with attention to the various characteristics of people and situations that interact to produce them. Stangor, Charles. Stereotypes and prejudice: Key readings. Philadelphia: Psychology Press. The cognitive component in our perceptions of group members is the stereotype — the positive or negative beliefs that we hold about the characteristics of social group. In addition to our stereotypes, we may also develop prejudice — an unjustifiable negative attitude toward an outgroup or toward the members of that outgroup.
Prejudice can take the form of disliking, anger, fear, disgust, discomfort, and even hatred—the kind of affective states that can lead to behavior such as the gay bashing you just read about. Our stereotypes and our prejudices are problematic because they may create discrimination — unjustified negative behaviors toward members of outgroups based on their group membership. Stereotypes and prejudice have a pervasive and often pernicious influence on our responses to others, and also in some cases on our own behaviors.
To take one example, social psychological research has found that our stereotypes may in some cases lead to stereotype threat — performance decrements that are caused by the knowledge of cultural stereotypes. In one particularly disturbing line of research about the influence of prejudice on behaviors, Joshua Correll and his colleagues had White participants participate in an experiment in which they viewed photographs of White and Black people on a computer screen.
Across the experiment, the photographs showed the people holding either a gun or something harmless such as a cell phone. Discrimination is a major societal problem because it is so pervasive, takes so many forms, and has such negative effects on so many people.
Even people who are paid to be unbiased may discriminate. Price and Wolfers found that White players in National Basketball Association games received fewer fouls when more of the referees present in the game were White, and Black players received fewer fouls when more of the referees present in the game where Black.
The implication is—whether they know it or not—the referees were discriminating on the basis of race. You may have had some experiences where you found yourself responding to another person on the basis of a stereotype or a prejudice, and perhaps the fact that you did surprised you. Perhaps you then tried to get past these beliefs and to react to the person more on the basis of his or her individual characteristics.
And yet, despite our best intentions, we may end up making friends only with people who are similar to us and perhaps even avoiding people whom we see as different. In this chapter, we will study the processes by which we develop, maintain, and make use of our stereotypes and our prejudices. We will consider the negative outcomes of those beliefs on the targets of our perceptions, and we will consider ways that we might be able to change those beliefs, or at least help us stop acting upon them.
Correll, J. The influence of stereotypes on decisions to shoot. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37 6 , — Across the thin blue line: Police officers and racial bias in the decision to shoot. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92 6 , — Cunningham, G. The LGBT advantage: Examining the relationship among sexual orientation diversity, diversity strategy, and performance.
Colorism is another kind of prejudice, in which someone believes one type of skin tone is superior or inferior to another within a racial group. Studies suggest that darker skinned African Americans experience more discrimination than lighter skinned African Americans Herring, Keith, and Horton ; Klonoff and Landrine For example, if a white employer believes a black employee with a darker skin tone is less capable than a black employer with lighter skin tone, that is colorism.
At least one study suggested the colorism affected racial socialization, with darker-skinned black male adolescents receiving more warnings about the danger of interacting with members of other racial groups than did lighter-skinned black male adolescents Landor et al. While prejudice refers to biased thinking, discrimination consists of actions against a group of people. Discrimination can be based on age, religion, health, and other indicators; race-based laws against discrimination strive to address this set of social problems.
Discrimination based on race or ethnicity can take many forms, from unfair housing practices to biased hiring systems. Overt discrimination has long been part of U. However, we cannot erase discrimination from our culture just by enacting laws to abolish it.
The reasons for this are complex and relate to the educational, criminal, economic, and political systems that exist in our society. For example, when a newspaper identifies by race individuals accused of a crime, it may enhance stereotypes of a certain minority. Another example of racist practices is racial steering , in which real estate agents direct prospective homeowners toward or away from certain neighborhoods based on their race.
Racist attitudes and beliefs are often more insidious and harder to pin down than specific racist practices. Prejudice and discrimination can overlap and intersect in many ways. To illustrate, here are four examples of how prejudice and discrimination can occur. Unprejudiced nondiscriminators are open-minded, tolerant, and accepting individuals. Unprejudiced discriminators might be those who unthinkingly practice sexism in their workplace by not considering females for certain positions that have traditionally been held by men.
Prejudiced discriminators include those who actively make disparaging remarks about others or who perpetuate hate crimes. Discrimination also manifests in different ways. The scenarios above are examples of individual discrimination, but other types exist. Institutional discrimination occurs when a societal system has developed with embedded disenfranchisement of a group, such as the U. While most white people are willing to admit that nonwhite people live with a set of disadvantages due to the color of their skin, very few are willing to acknowledge the benefits they receive.
The death of Michael Brown in Ferguson, MO on August 9, illustrates racial tensions in the United States as well as the overlap between prejudice, discrimination, and institutional racism. On that day, Brown, a young unarmed black man, was killed by a white police officer named Darren Wilson.
During the incident, Wilson directed Brown and his friend to walk on the sidewalk instead of in the street. While eyewitness accounts vary, they agree that an altercation occurred between Wilson and Brown. Three autopsies independently confirmed that Brown was shot six times Lowery and Fears The shooting focused attention on a number of race-related tensions in the United States.
The national dialogue shifted during the next few weeks, with some commentators pointing to a nationwide sedimentation of racial inequality and identifying redlining in Ferguson as a cause of the unbalanced racial composition in the community, in local political establishments, and in the police force Bouie Redlining is the practice of routinely refusing mortgages for households and businesses located in predominately minority communities, while sedimentation of racial inequality describes the intergenerational impact of both practical and legalized racism that limits the abilities of black people to accumulate wealth.
Individuals with multiple ethnic backgrounds are becoming more common. Prior to the twentieth century, racial intermarriage referred to as miscegenation was extremely rare, and in many places, illegal.
In the later part of the twentieth century and in the twenty-first century, attitudes have changed for the better.
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